Which Animals Did Europeans Bring To The Americas?

Exchanges of people, diseases, plants, animals, and minerals between the Americas and the Old Earth

The Columbian substitution, also known as the Columbian interchange, was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, commodities, culture, homo populations, applied science, diseases, and ideas between the New World (the Americas) in the Western Hemisphere, and the Old Earth (Afro-Eurasia) in the Eastern Hemisphere, in the tardily 15th and following centuries.^[ane] Information technology is named subsequently the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus and is related to the European colonization and global trade following his 1492 voyage.^[1] Some of the exchanges were purposeful; some were accidental or unintended. Communicable diseases of Old World origin resulted in an fourscore to 95 percent reduction in the number of Ethnic peoples of the Americas from the 15th century onwards, nearly severely in the Caribbean.^[one] The cultures of both hemispheres were significantly impacted past the migration of people (both free and enslaved) from the Old World to the New. African slaves and European colonists replaced the Indigenous populations across the Americas. The number of Africans coming to the New World was far greater than the number of Europeans coming to the New Globe in the first three centuries later on Columbus.^{[ii] [3]}

The new contacts amidst the global population resulted in the interchange of a wide diverseness of crops and livestock, which supported increases in food production and population in the Old World. American crops such as maize, potatoes, tomatoes, tobacco, cassava, sweet potatoes, and chili peppers became important crops effectually the world. Old World rice, wheat, saccharide pikestaff, and livestock, amongst other crops, became important in the New World. American-produced silver flooded the world and became the standard metallic used in coinage, particularly in Imperial Red china.

The term was first used in 1972 by the American historian and professor Alfred W. Crosby in his ecology history volume The Columbian Exchange.^{[1] [4]} It was chop-chop adopted past other historians and journalists.

Etymology [edit]

In 1972 Alfred Westward. Crosby, an American historian at the University of Texas at Austin, published The Columbian Exchange,^[4] and subsequent volumes within the same decade. His master focus was mapping the biological and cultural transfers that occurred between the Old and New Worlds. He studied the effects of Columbus'south voyages between the two – specifically, the global diffusion of crops, seeds, and plants from the New Earth to the Former, which radically transformed agriculture in both regions. His research made a lasting contribution to the way scholars understand the multifariousness of contemporary ecosystems that arose due to these transfers.^[v]

The term has get popular amid historians and journalists and has since been enhanced with Crosby'due south later volume in three editions, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900. Charles C. Mann, in his volume 1493 farther expands and updates Crosby's original enquiry.^{[half dozen]}

Background [edit]

The weight of scientific evidence is that humans first came to the New Earth from Siberia thousands of years ago. At that place is piddling additional bear witness of contacts between the peoples of the Old Globe and those of the New World, although the literature speculating on pre-Columbian trans-oceanic journeys is extensive. The first inhabitants of the New World brought with them domestic dogs and, possibly, a container, the calabash, both of which persisted in their new habitation.^[7] The medieval explorations, visits, and brief residence of the Norsemen in Greenland, Newfoundland, and Vinland in the belatedly 10th century and 11th century had no known impact on the Americas.^[8] Many scientists accept that possible contact between Polynesians and coastal peoples in South America about 1200 resulted in genetic similarities and the adoption by Polynesians of an American ingather, the sweetness potato.^[9] However, it was only with the kickoff voyage of the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus and his crew to the Americas in 1492 that the Columbian exchange began, resulting in major transformations in the cultures and livelihoods of the peoples in both hemispheres.^[one]

Diseases [edit]

The first manifestation of the Columbian commutation may accept been the spread of syphilis from the native people of the Caribbean Ocean to Europe. The history of syphilis has been well-studied, only the origin of the disease remains a subject of contend.^[10] There are two principal hypotheses: one proposes that syphilis was carried to Europe from the Americas past the crew of Christopher Columbus in the early 1490s, while the other proposes that syphilis previously existed in Europe but went unrecognized.^[11] The starting time written descriptions of the illness in the Old World came in 1493.^[12] The first big outbreak of syphilis in Europe occurred in 1494–1495 among the regular army of Charles VIII during its invasion of Naples.^{[11] [13] [fourteen] [15]} Many of the crew members who had served with Columbus had joined this army. After the victory, Charles's largely mercenary army returned to their respective homes, thereby spreading "the Great Pox" beyond Europe and killing upward to five million people.^{[16] [17]}

The Columbian exchange of diseases in the other management was by far deadlier. The peoples of the Americas had had no contact to European and African diseases and fiddling or no immunity.^[eighteen] An epidemic of swine flu commencement in 1493 killed many of the Taino people inhabiting Caribbean islands. The pre-contact population of the island of Hispanola was probably at least 500,000, only by 1526, fewer than 500 were however alive. Spanish exploitation was office of the cause of the near-extinction of the native people.^[nineteen] In 1518, smallpox was first recorded in the Americas and became the deadliest imported European affliction. Forty percent of the 200,000 people living in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, later Mexico City, are estimated to accept died of smallpox in 1520 during the war of the Aztecs with conquistador Hernán Cortés.^[20] Epidemics, maybe of smallpox and spread from Fundamental America, decimated the population of the Inca Empire a few years before the arrival of the Castilian.^[21] The ravages of European diseases and Spanish exploitation reduced the Mexican population from an estimated 20 million to barely more than a million in the 16th century.^[22] The indigenous population of Peru decreased from about ix million in the pre-Columbian era to 600,000 in 1620.^[23] Scholars Nunn and Qian judge that 80–95 percent of the Native American population died in epidemics within the starting time 100–150 years following 1492. The deadliest Old World diseases in the Americas were smallpox, measles, whooping cough, chicken pox, bubonic plague, typhus, and malaria.^[24]

African slavery [edit]

The Atlantic slave trade consisted of the involuntary immigration of 11.vii meg Africans, primarily from West Africa, to the Americas between the 16th and 19th centuries, far outnumbering the well-nigh 3.4 million Europeans who migrated, most voluntarily, to the New Globe betwixt 1492 and 1840.^[25] The prevalence of African slaves in the New Globe was related to the demographic refuse of New Earth peoples and the demand of European colonists for labor. The Africans had greater immunities to Old Earth diseases than the New World peoples, and were less probable to dice from disease. The journey of enslaved Africans from Africa to America is unremarkably known as the "eye passage".^[26]

Enslaved Africans helped shape an emerging African-American culture in the New World. They participated in both skilled and unskilled labor. Their descendants gradually developed an ethnicity that drew from the numerous African tribes as well as European nationalities.^{[27] [28]} The descendants of African slaves make upwards a majority of the population in some Caribbean countries, notably Republic of haiti and Jamaica, and a sizeable minority in most American countries.^[29]

A movement for the abolitionism of slavery, known as abolitionism, developed in Europe and the Americas during the 18th century. The efforts of abolitionists somewhen led to the abolition of slavery (the British Empire in 1833, the United States in 1865, and Brazil in 1888).

Argent [edit]

The New World produced 80 percent or more of the world's silverish in the 16th and 17th centuries, almost of it at Potosí in Republic of bolivia, simply too in Mexico. The founding of the metropolis of Manila in the Philippines in 1571 for the purpose of facilitating trade in New World silver with China for silk, porcelain, and other luxury products has been called by scholars the "origin of earth trade."^[30] China was the globe'southward largest economic system and in the 1570s adopted silver (which information technology did non produce in any quantity) as its medium of substitution. China had niggling interest in buying strange products so trade consisted of large quantities of argent coming into China to pay for the Chinese products that foreign countries desired. Argent made information technology to Manila either through Europe and by ship around the Cape of Skilful Promise or across the Pacific Sea in Spanish galleons from the Mexican port of Acapulco. From Manila the silver was transported onward to China on Portuguese and later Dutch ships. Silver was also smuggled from Potosi to Buenos Aires, Argentina to pay slavers for African slaves imported into the New World.^[31]

The enormous quantities of silver imported into Kingdom of spain and China created vast wealth but also caused aggrandizement and the value of silver to decline. In 16th century Prc, six ounces of silver was equal to the value of ane ounce of gold. In 1635, information technology took thirteen ounces of silver to equal in value ane ounce of gilded. Taxes in both countries were assessed in the weight of silver, not its value. The shortage of revenue due to the reject in the value of silver may have contributed indirectly to the autumn of the Ming dynasty in 1644. Besides, silver from the Americas financed Espana's endeavor to conquer other countries in Europe, and the decline in the value of argent left Spain faltering in the maintenance of its world-wide empire and retreating from its aggressive policies in Europe after 1650.^{[32] [33]}

Effects [edit]

Crops [edit]

Because of the new trading resulting from the Columbian exchange, several plants native to the Americas have spread around the world, including potatoes, maize, tomatoes, and tobacco.^[34] Earlier 1500, potatoes were not grown outside of South America. By the 18th century, they were cultivated and consumed widely in Europe and had become important crops in both India and N America. Potatoes eventually became an of import staple of the diet in much of Europe, contributing to an estimated 25% of the population growth in Afro-Eurasia between 1700 and 1900.^[35] Many European rulers, including Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia, encouraged the tillage of the potato.^[36]

Maize and cassava, introduced by the Portuguese from South America in the 16th century,^[37] gradually replaced sorghum and millet as Africa's about important nutrient crops.^[38] Spanish colonizers of the 16th-century introduced new staple crops to Asia from the Americas, including maize and sweet potatoes, and thereby contributed to population growth in Asia.^[39] On a larger scale, the introduction of potatoes and maize to the Former Earth "resulted in caloric and nutritional improvements over previously existing staples" throughout the Eurasian landmass,^[40] enabling more varied and abundant food production.^[41]

Tomatoes, which came to Europe from the New Earth via Espana, were initially prized in Italy mainly for their ornamental value. But starting in the 19th century, tomato sauces became typical of Neapolitan cuisine and, ultimately, Italian cuisine in general.^[42] Java (introduced in the Americas circa 1720) from Africa and the Middle Due east and sugarcane (introduced from the Indian subcontinent) from the Spanish West Indies became the main export commodity crops of all-encompassing Latin American plantations. Introduced to India past the Portuguese, chili and potatoes from South America accept get an integral office of their cuisine.^[43]

Considering crops traveled only oftentimes their endemic fungi did not, for a limited time yields were higher in their new lands. Dark & Gent 2001 term this the " Yield honeymoon ". However, as globalization has continued the Columbian Exchange of pathogens has continued and crops have declined back toward their endemic yields – the honeymoon is ending.^[44]

Rice [edit]

Rice was another crop that became widely cultivated during the Columbian exchange. Every bit the demand in the New World grew, so did the knowledge of how to cultivate information technology. The 2 principal species used were Oryza glaberrima and Oryza sativa, originating from West Africa and Southeast Asia, respectively. European planters in the New World relied upon the skills of enslaved Africans to cultivate both species.^[45] Georgia, South Carolina, Cuba and Puerto Rico were major centers of rice production during the colonial era. Enslaved Africans brought their cognition of h2o control, milling, winnowing, and other agrestal practices to the fields. This widespread knowledge among enslaved Africans somewhen led to rice becoming a staple dietary particular in the New World.^{[5] [46]}

Fruits [edit]

Citrus fruits and grapes were brought to the Americas from the Mediterranean. At first planters struggled to adapt these crops to the climates in the New World, just by the tardily 19th century they were cultivated more consistently.^[47]

Bananas were introduced into the Americas in the 16th century by Portuguese sailors who came across the fruits in West Africa, while engaged in commercial ventures and the slave merchandise. Bananas were consumed in minimal amounts in the Americas equally late as the 1880s. The U.S. did non see major increases in banana consumption until large plantations were established in the Caribbean.^[48]

Tomatoes [edit]

It took three centuries later their introduction in Europe for tomatoes to become a widely accustomed nutrient item. Tobacco, potatoes, chili peppers, tomatillos, and tomatoes are all members of the nightshade family. Like to some European Nightshade varieties, tomatoes and potatoes can exist harmful or even lethal, if the wrong part of the plant is consumed in excess. Physicians in the 16th-century had good reason to be wary that this native Mexican fruit was poisonous; they suspected it of generating "melancholic humours".^{[ citation needed ]}

In 1544, Pietro Andrea Mattioli, a Tuscan physician and botanist, suggested that tomatoes might be edible, but no record exists of anyone consuming them at this fourth dimension. However, in 1592 the head gardener at the botanical garden of Aranjuez nearly Madrid, under the patronage of Philip II of Kingdom of spain, wrote, "it is said [tomatoes] are skillful for sauces". In spite of these comments, tomatoes remained exotic plants grown for ornamental purposes, but rarely for culinary use.^{[ commendation needed ]} On October 31, 1548, the lycopersicon esculentum was given its showtime name anywhere in Europe when a house steward of Cosimo I de' Medici, Duke of Florence, wrote to the De' Medici'due south individual secretarial assistant that the basket of pomi d'oro "had arrived safely". At this fourth dimension, the label pomi d'oro was also used to refer to figs, melons, and citrus fruits in treatises by scientists.^[49] In the early on years, tomatoes were mainly grown as ornamentals in Italy. For instance, the Florentine blueblood Giovan Vettorio Soderini wrote how they "were to be sought only for their beauty" and were grown only in gardens or bloom beds. Tomatoes were grown in elite town and country gardens in the fifty years or so following their arrival in Europe, and were just occasionally depicted in works of art.^{[ citation needed ]} The practice of using tomato sauce with pasta developed only in the late nineteenth century. Today around 32,000 acres (xiii,000 ha) of tomatoes are cultivated in Italian republic.^[49]

Livestock [edit]

Native Americans learned to use horses to chase bison, dramatically expanding their hunting range.

Initially at least, the Columbian exchange of animals largely went in one direction, from Europe to the New World, as the Eurasian regions had domesticated many more animals. Horses, donkeys, mules, pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, chickens, large dogs, cats, and bees were rapidly adopted by native peoples for transport, food, and other uses.^[50] I of the first European exports to the Americas, the equus caballus, inverse the lives of many Native American tribes. The mountain tribes shifted to a nomadic lifestyle, based on hunting bison on horseback. They largely gave upwardly settled agronomics. Horse culture was adopted gradually by Great Plains Indians. The existing Plains tribes expanded their territories with horses, and the animals were considered so valuable that horse herds became a measure of wealth.^[51] While mesoamerican peoples (Mayas in particular) already skilful apiculture,^[52] producing wax and dear from a multifariousness of bees (such as Melipona or Trigona),^[53] European bees (Apis mellifera)—more productive, delivering a love with less water content and allowing for an easier extraction from beehives—were introduced in New Spain, condign an important office of farming production.^[54]

The effects of the introduction of European livestock on the environments and peoples of the New World were non always positive. In the Caribbean, the proliferation of European animals consumed native fauna and undergrowth, changing habitat. If free ranging, the animals oftentimes damaged conucos, plots managed past indigenous peoples for subsistence.^[55]

The Mapuche of Araucanía were fast to adopt the horse from the Spanish, and improve their military capabilities as they fought the Arauco War against Spanish colonizers.^{[56] [57]} Until the inflow of the Spanish, the Mapuches had largely maintained chilihueques (llamas) equally livestock. The Spanish introduction of sheep caused some competition between the ii domesticated species. Anecdotal evidence of the mid-17th century bear witness that past and then both species coexisted but that the sheep far outnumbered the llamas. The decline of llamas reached a point in the tardily 18th century when only the Mapuche from Mariquina and Huequén next to Angol raised the creature.^[58] In the Chiloé Archipelago the introduction of pigs by the Spanish proved a success. They could feed on the abundant shellfish and algae exposed by the large tides.^[58]

In the other direction, the turkey, guinea pig, and Muscovy duck were New World animals that were transferred to Europe.^[59]

Medicines [edit]

European exploration of tropical areas was aided past the New World discovery of quinine, the first effective treatment for malaria. Europeans suffered from this disease, but some indigenous populations had adult at least partial resistance to it. In Africa, resistance to malaria has been associated with other genetic changes amongst sub-Saharan Africans and their descendants, which tin can cause sickle-cell disease.^[60] The resistance of sub-Saharan Africans to malaria in the southern United States and the Caribbean contributed greatly to the specific graphic symbol of the Africa-sourced slavery in those regions.^[61]

Similarly, yellow fever is thought to have been brought to the Americas from Africa via the Atlantic slave trade. Because it was endemic in Africa, many people there had acquired immunity. Europeans suffered college rates of death than did African-descended persons when exposed to yellow fever in Africa and the Americas, where numerous epidemics swept the colonies beginning in the 17th century and standing into the late 19th century. The affliction caused widespread fatalities in the Caribbean during the heyday of slave-based saccharide plantation. The replacement of native forests by sugar plantations and factories facilitated its spread in the tropical expanse by reducing the number of potential natural musquito predators.The means of xanthous fever transmission was unknown until 1881, when Carlos Finlay suggested that the disease was transmitted through mosquitoes, now known to be female mosquitoes of the species Aedes aegypti.^[62]

Cultural exchanges [edit]

One of the results of the movement of people between New and Old Worlds were cultural exchanges. For example, in the article "The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500–1800", Pieter Emmer makes the point that "from 1500 onward, a 'clash of cultures' had begun in the Atlantic".^[63] This disharmonism of civilization involved the transfer of European values to indigenous cultures. Equally an example, the emergence of the concept of private property in regions where property was oft viewed as communal, concepts of monogamy (although many indigenous peoples were already monogamous), the role of women and children in the social system, and different concepts of labor, including slavery,^[64] although slavery was already a practice amongst many indigenous peoples and was widely skillful or introduced past Europeans into the Americas. Some other example included the European abhorrence of human sacrifice, a religious practice amidst some ethnic populations.^{[ citation needed ]}

During the initial stages of European colonization of the Americas, Europeans encountered debate-less lands. They believed that the country was unimproved and bachelor for their taking, every bit they sought economic opportunity and homesteads. Even so, when European settlers arrived in Virginia, they encountered a fully established indigenous people, the Powhatan. The Powhatan farmers in Virginia scattered their farm plots within larger cleared areas. These larger cleared areas were a communal place for growing useful plants. Every bit the Europeans viewed fences every bit hallmarks of civilization, they set up about transforming "the land into something more than suitable for themselves".^[65]

Tobacco was a New World agronomical product, originally a luxury good spread every bit part of the Columbian substitution. As is discussed in regard to the trans-Atlantic slave trade, the tobacco merchandise increased demand for free labor and spread tobacco worldwide. In discussing the widespread uses of tobacco, the Spanish physician Nicolas Monardes (1493–1588) noted that "The black people that have gone from these parts to the Indies, have taken up the same manner and use of tobacco that the Indians take".^[66] As Europeans traveled to other parts of the world, they took with them the practices related to tobacco. Demand for tobacco grew in the course of these cultural exchanges amid peoples.^{[ commendation needed ]}

1 of the most clearly notable areas of cultural clash and exchange was that of religion, often the atomic number 82 point of cultural conversion. In the Spanish and Portuguese dominions, the spread of Catholicism, steeped in a European values arrangement, was a major objective of colonization. Europeans often pursued it via explicit policies of suppression of indigenous languages, cultures and religions. In British America, Protestant missionaries converted many members of indigenous tribes to Protestantism. The French colonies had a more outright religious mandate, as some of the early explorers, such equally Jacques Marquette, were too Catholic priests. In time, and given the European technological and immunological superiority which aided and secured their authorisation, indigenous religions declined in the centuries post-obit the European settlement of the Americas.

While Mapuche people did adopt the equus caballus, sheep, and wheat, the over-all scant adoption of Castilian technology by Mapuche has been characterized as a means of cultural resistance.

Co-ordinate to Caroline Dodds Pennock, in Atlantic history ethnic people are often seen as static recipients of transatlantic encounters. But thousands of Native Americans crossed the ocean during the sixteenth century, some by choice.^[67]

Organism examples [edit]

Postal service-Columbian transfers of native organisms with close ties to humans, Late 15th to 20th century

Type of organism	Afro-Eurasia to the Americas	Americas to Afro-Eurasia
Domesticated animals	Barbary dove cat (domestic – several wild species already present) camel (18th–20th century) cattle (Would have been used for meat, dairy, and for pulling a plow or wagon.) chicken donkey duck (Old Earth domestic ducks are descended from the wild mallard, unlike the North American Muscovy duck) goat (the goats of the Old World, genus Capra, are different from the mountain goat of the New Earth, genus Oreamnos; would take go a source of meat and milk in Caribbean peculiarly) goose (species of New Globe geese existed, but farmyards likewise would take wanted geese for laying eggs in addition to meat) guineafowl honey bee (European dearest bee – other wild and domesticated species already present) golden hamster horse (technically reintroduced afterward extinction in North America) Mule koi ostrich grunter pigeon quail (European and Japanese species) rabbit (domestic) sheep (Domestic only. Wild bighorn sheep practise not alive e of the Mississippi River and would non be discovered until after virtually of the interchange was consummate.) water buffalo yak zebu	alpaca American mink guinea pig llama long-tailed chinchilla New World parrots (Kept as pets) Muscovy duck turkey (Mexican subspecies Meleagris gallopavo gallopavo.)
Other Animals	ring-necked pheasant mute swan peacock (Florida)	Canada goose (escaped from menageries of wealthy) ruddy duck
Cultivated plants	adzuki edible bean almond aloe vera anise apple apricot asparagus baobab banana (including cooking banana) barley basil beetroot black-eyed pea Brassica oleracea-derived vegetables broccoli Brussels sprouts cabbage cauliflower collard greens kale kohlrabi rapeseed breadfruit (brought from Asia to Caribbean) broad bean Cannabis (including hemp) cantaloupe carrot celery cherry chickpea cinnamon (not just species from Ceylon, only also Chinese and Southeast Asia) citrus (orange, lemon, etc.) coconut (brought from Asia to Caribbean) coffee common fig (other species of Ficus genus arable, but earliest explorers did not know of beingness or edibility until afterward.) coriander (also known as cilantro) cucumber cumin eggplant (aubergine) Ellis (oil palm) fennel finger millet foxtail millet flax garlic ginger goji grape (wild species present in North America, just not wine grapes) hazelnut hops jackfruit (brought from Asia to Caribbean) kiwifruit kola nut leek lentil lettuce mace mango mangosteen melon (watermelon, cantaloupe, honeydew, etc.) millet mint Momordica charantia (bitter melon) mung bean nutmeg oat okra olive onion opium poppy oregano parsnip pea peach pear pearl millet persimmon (Asian species only) pistachio plum (Cultivated food species from Asia merely) pomegranate proso millet radish raspberry rice rosemary rye sage sesame sorghum soybean spinach sugarcane and sugar beet tamarind taro turmeric turnip walnut (commercial varieties) wheat yam (African yam; sugariness potatoes are sometimes called "yam" in the U.Southward.)	açai American persimmon (ornamental) Annona glabra (alligator apple) Annona reticulata (custard apple) agave allspice amaranth (every bit grain) annatto arracacha arrowroot or Maranta arundinacea avocado black cherry black walnut (used for lumber and for ornamental purposes) huckleberry (commercial varieties) Brazil nut Calathea allouia (leren) Canna indica (achira) capsicum (bell pepper and chili pepper) cashew cassava (manioc, tapioca, yuca) chayote cherimoya chia coca leafage cocoa bean cotton fiber (long-staple species) cranberry (big cranberry, or bearberry species) cucurbits (many squashes and gourds) butternut squash pumpkin Hubbard squash acorn squash pattypan squash zucchini (courgette) Eryngium foetidum (culantro, Mexican coriander) Feijoa sellowiana (feijoa, pineapple guava, Brazilian guava, guavasteen) guarana guava (mutual) Helianthus (sunflower) Jerusalem artichoke jicama maize (corn) Magnolia, several species (ornamental purposes) Manilkara zapota (sapodilla) mashua Opuntia ficus-indica (prickly pear) Oxalis tuberosa (New Zealand yam) papaya Pawpaw passionfruit, fruit and flowers for gardens; multiple species. peanut pecan Phaseolus vulgaris (beans: pinto, lima, kidney, etc.) physalis (cape gooseberry) pineapple pitaya (dragon fruit) irish potato quinoa red oak (lumber and ornamental) rubber sassafras soursop stevia strawberry (commercial varieties) saccharide-apple sugar maple sweet murphy tamarillo tobacco love apple tomatillo ulluco vanilla wild rice (Texas, annual and northern species) yerba mate yucca
Cultivated fungi	Agaricus bisporus (button mushrooms, chestnut mushrooms, portobello mushrooms) cloud ear mucus enoki mushroom oyster mushroom (some varieties) Rhizopus oligosporus (tempeh) shiitake mushroom snowfall ear mucus truffle	huitlacoche (corn smut) oyster mushroom (some varieties)
Infectious diseases	bubonic plague chickenpox cholera diphtheria gonorrhea flu leprosy malaria measles mumps rubella ruddy fever smallpox tuberculosis typhoid fever typhus whooping cough yaws xanthous fever	Chagas disease pinta syphilis (disputed)

After history [edit]

Plants that arrived past country, bounding main, or air in the times before 1492 are called archaeophytes, and plants introduced to Europe after those times are chosen neophytes. Invasive species of plants and pathogens also were introduced by chance, including such weeds as tumbleweeds (Salsola spp.) and wild oats (Avena fatua). Some plants introduced intentionally, such every bit the kudzu vine introduced in 1894 from Japan to the The states to aid command soil erosion, have since been institute to be invasive pests in the new environment.^{[ citation needed ]}

Fungi have also been transported, such as the ane responsible for Dutch elm affliction, killing American elms in Due north American forests and cities, where many had been planted as street copse. Some of the invasive species accept become serious ecosystem and economic problems later on establishing in the New World environments.^{[68] [69]} A beneficial, although probably unintentional, introduction is Saccharomyces eubayanus, the yeast responsible for lager beer now idea to take originated in Patagonia.^[70] Others have crossed the Atlantic to Europe and have inverse the course of history. In the 1840s, Phytophthora infestans crossed the oceans, damaging the potato ingather in several European nations. In Ireland, the potato crop was totally destroyed; the Bully Famine of Ireland acquired millions to starve to death or emigrate.^{[ citation needed ]}

In improver to these, many animals were introduced to new habitats on the other side of the globe either accidentally or incidentally. These include such animals equally brown rats, earthworms (plain absent from parts of the pre-Columbian New Earth), and zebra mussels, which arrived on ships.^[71] Escaped and feral populations of non-ethnic animals have thrived in both the Old and New Worlds, frequently negatively impacting or displacing native species. In the New World, populations of feral European cats, pigs, horses, and cattle are mutual, and the Burmese python and green iguana are considered problematic in Florida. In the Old World, the Eastern gray squirrel has been particularly successful in colonising Peachy Britain, and populations of raccoons tin now exist found in some regions of Germany, the Caucasus, and Japan. Fur subcontract escapees such as coypu and American mink have all-encompassing populations.^{[ citation needed ]}

Come across also [edit]

• Arab Agronomical Revolution
• Early bear on of Mesoamerican goods in Iberian guild
• First contact (anthropology)
• Cracking American Interchange
• Listing of food plants native to the Americas
• Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories
• Global silver merchandise from the 16th to 19th centuries
• Transformation of culture

References [edit]

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Further reading [edit]

• The Columbian Exchange: Plants, Animals, and Disease between the Sometime and New Worlds by Alfred W. Crosby (2009)
• 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus past Charles C. Isle of mann (2006)
• Indian Givers: How the Indians of the Americas Transformed the World by Jack Weatherford (2010)

External links [edit]

• Worlds Together, Worlds Apart by Jeremy Adelman, Stephen Aron, Stephen Kotkin, et al.
• Foods that Changed the Earth by Steven R. Rex from the Wayback Machine
• The Columbian Exchange video, written report guide, analysis, and instruction guide

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbian_exchange

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